The energy use of machine learning models - especially large language models - remains highly uncertain. Here are a few articles I’ve found useful on this topic:

  1. Michael Liebreich. “Generative AI – The Power and the Glory”. BloombergNEF. December 2024.
  2. Sophia Chen. “How much energy will AI really consume? The good, the bad and the unknown”. Nature News Feature. March 2025.
  3. Andy Masley. “Using ChatGPT is not bad for the environment”. Substack. January 2025.